The Science Behind PTSD

PTSD and Its Foundations

Post-traumatic stress disorder, more commonly called PTSD, goes far beyond a standard response to fear or stress. It’s a complex mental health disorder rooted in the body, shaped by experience, and influenced by how the brain processes and stores memories. 

While many people associate PTSD with veterans or first responders, in truth, it can affect anyone who’s experienced—or even witnessed—a traumatic event. (And honestly, who hasn’t at one time or another?) From survivors of abuse or accidents, medical emergencies, natural disasters, or violence, PTSD touches lives in unexpected and often not-recognized ways.

So, What Exactly Is PTSD? 

At its core, PTSD is a mental health condition that develops after a person experiences a traumatic event. Symptoms vary, but they often include: 

• Intrusive memories (like flashbacks or nightmares)
• Emotional numbness
• Or heightened arousal (such as feeling on edge or easily startled). 

They can also lead to avoidance of reminders of the trauma and changes in mood or thinking. 

The symptoms are more than just difficult emotions. They’re the outward signs of a brain and body that have been altered by trauma.

Where Do We Begin: A Brief History of PTSD

While trauma has always been part of the human experience, PTSD wasn’t formally recognized as a mental health condition until 1980, when it was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III). 

Before the officially diagnosis, similar symptoms were described, for example, as “shell shock” during World War I, “combat fatigue” in World War II, and others. It’s become clear over time that these types of symptoms aren’t limited to soldiers or war settings. Indeed, PTSD affects people of all backgrounds and experiences. And its official recognition has helped open the door to deeper research and the science behind PTSD. Ultimately, that’s led to better care.

Is PTSD Neurological or Psychological? 

One of the most important advances in understanding PTSD is the growing field of neurobiology. Scientists now know PTSD isn’t just a psychological response—it’s also deeply rooted in changes to the brain and nervous system. 

Research, for example, has shown that trauma can leave lasting marks on areas like:

• the amygdala (the brain’s fear center), 
• the hippocampus (which helps with memory and learning), 
• and the prefrontal cortex (which helps with decision-making and emotional regulation). 

These biological changes explain why PTSD symptoms can be so persistent and intense after the incident has passed—often long after.

It’s vital to come up with effective treatments, decrease stigma, and empower folks affected by trauma. That starts with understanding the science behind PTSD. 

By exploring the brain’s role in PTSD, we can help people see that their symptoms are not a sign of weakness but instead a reflection of how the brain tries to protect and adapt. In short, the answer to “Is PTSD Neurological or Psychological” is yes.

Key Brain Structures Involved in PTSD

Ever felt like your mind and body were working against you after a traumatic experience? You’re not alone. And there’s a scientific reason for this response. 

PTSD isn’t just a collection of difficult emotions. It’s a condition where certain parts of the brain become hyperactive, underactive, or out of sync. 

Let’s take a closer look at the key players in the brain and how they shape what you might feel or experience if you’re living with PTSD.

The Amygdala: The Brain’s Fear Alarm

The amygdala can be thought of as your brain’s alarm system. This small, almond-shaped area deep in the brain is in charge of detecting threats and setting off the “fight, flight, or freeze” response. This part of your brain is designed to protect you by helping you react quickly to danger. Think slamming on the brakes if a car swerves into your lane.

But with PTSD, the amygdala can stay on high alert even when there’s no immediate threat. This is why you might feel jumpy, anxious, or easily startled by things that remind you of the trauma. 

In a sense, your amygdala is doing its best to protect you. But it can become overly sensitive, making it hard to feel safe or relaxed.

The Hippocampus: The Memory Keeper

Next, there’s the hippocampus. This part of the brain helps you store and organize memories. It’s like your brain’s filing cabinet, keeping track of what happened, when, and where. 

After trauma, the hippocampus can shrink or become less active. This can, in turn, can cause memories to get jumbled or feel fragmented. It might also explain why some people with PTSD struggle with intrusive memories, flashbacks, or a sense of being “stuck” in the past.

It’s important to know that this isn’t your fault—your brain is trying to process an overwhelming experience. Recognizing that these memory issues are a biological response, not a personal weakness, can be a crucial step toward healing.

The Medial Prefrontal Cortex: The Emotional Regulator

Finally, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is like the brain’s “wise coach.” It helps you stay calm, think clearly, and manage your emotions. It also plays a role in helping the amygdala know when to stand down after a threat has passed.

In people with PTSD, the mPFC can become less active or less responsive to cues from the amygdala. So, it becomes harder to regulate emotions, which can lead to feelings of overwhelm, intense emotional reactions, or difficulties when trying to focus or make decisions. It’s like calming voice in your brain has been muted (or at least turned down), but the alarm system is stuck on high.

The Hidden Chemistry of PTSD: Hormonal and Neurochemical Influences

When it comes to the science behind PTSD, it’s not just the brain’s structure that changes. There’s also a powerful story happening in the brain’s chemistry. Hormones, neurotransmitters, and other chemical messengers work together to shape how we feel, think, and react. 

After trauma, these systems can get out of balance and, thus, contribute to the symptoms of PTSD. 

Cortisol, the HPA Axis, and the Stress Response

Cortisol is often called the “stress hormone.” There’s good reason for this. When you face a threat, your body releases cortisol to help you respond. Your heart rate increases. Focus sharpens. And it shuttles fuel to your muscles to get ready for action. This process is part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a system that helps manage your stress response.

In a healthy stress cycle, cortisol levels rise in response to a challenge. But then they quickly return to normal once the threat has passed. 

But in PTSD (and other forms of chronic stress), this system can get stuck. Some people with PTSD have too much cortisol. Others, too little. Either way, the balance is off. This can lead to feeling constantly on edge, having trouble sleeping, or experiencing sudden bursts of fear—even when you’re not in immediate danger.

Understanding how cortisol works helps explain why PTSD symptoms aren’t just “in your head.” Indeed, they’re deeply connected to your body’s natural alarm system, trying to protect you, even when the danger is no longer present.

Neurotransmitters: The Brain’s Chemical Messengers

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that help nerve cells in the brain communicate. When it comes to PTSD, two of the most important are serotonin and norepinephrine.

• Serotonin is often called the “feel-good” neurotransmitter. It helps regulate mood, sleep, and emotional balance. Many people with PTSD have lower levels of serotonin. This can then contribute to feelings of sadness, irritability, or emotional numbness.
• Norepinephrine is like adrenaline’s chemical cousin. It boosts alertness and energy during stress. In PTSD, norepinephrine levels can be too high, keeping the brain in a state of hypervigilance. This can then contribute to symptoms like being easily startled, feeling anxious, or having trouble relaxing.

These chemical imbalances help explain why PTSD can feel like a constant state of tension, with emotional highs and lows that are hard to control.

Peptides, Amino Acids, and PTSD

Beyond hormones and neurotransmitters, there are also smaller molecules—like peptides and amino acids—that play a role in PTSD symptoms. For example:

• Peptides like corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) help trigger the stress response. High levels of CRH are often found in people with PTSD, which may contribute to heightened fear and anxiety.
• Amino acids like glutamate and GABA act as “on” and “off” switches for brain activity. Glutamate excites the brain, while GABA calms it down. In PTSD, there can be too much glutamate (leading to hyperactivity in the brain) and not enough GABA (reducing the brain’s ability to relax).

These chemical shifts help us understand why PTSD isn’t simply a psychological issue. Rather, it’s a whole-body condition where the brain and body are in overdrive, trying to stay safe after trauma.

Risk Factors and Resilience in PTSD Development: Why Some People Are at a Higher Risk for PTSD than Others

One of the most puzzling questions about PTSD is why two people can go through similar traumatic events, yet just one develops lasting symptoms. The answer isn’t simple. However, the science behind PTSD is helping us understand that a mix of genetics, early life experiences, and environmental factors all play a role in shaping a person’s response to trauma.

The Role of Genetics in PTSD Risk

Research suggests that PTSD can run in families. This isn’t because trauma has been passed down directly. Rather, certain genes may make someone more sensitive to stress. For instance, genes involved in regulating cortisol (the stress hormone) or serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with mood) may influence how the body and brain respond to trauma.

Please don’t misunderstand: This doesn’t mean someone with a genetic predisposition will definitely develop PTSD. However, they may be more vulnerable when exposed to intense stress. Think of it as having a set of “stress-sensitive” switches. If the switches are flipped by trauma, PTSD could more likely develop.

Genetic Variations and Their Influence

More specifically, differences in genes like FKBP5, which influences cortisol regulation, or 5-HTTLPR, which affects serotonin transport, have been linked to PTSD risk. These tiny differences in our DNA don’t guarantee anything, but they may tip the scale.

What’s fascinating—and hopeful—is that these same biological pathways are being studied for new PTSD treatments. In the future, understanding your genetic makeup might help you tailor more effective therapies for recovery.

Early Life Experiences: Building or Breaking Resilience

Childhood plays a powerful role in shaping how we handle stress later in life. Children who grow up in safe, nurturing environments tend to develop stronger emotional regulation and coping skills. On the other hand, early trauma, neglect, or unstable relationships can leave the developing brain more vulnerable to stress later on.

In particular, chronic stress during childhood can disrupt the way the brain’s fear, memory, and regulation systems (like the amygdala and hippocampus) mature. These early disruptions may “prime” the brain to overreact to trauma in adulthood.

Protective Factors: What Builds Resilience?

Thankfully, vulnerability isn’t the whole story. Many people are incredibly resilient, even in the face of significant trauma. Having a strong support system—such as friends, family, and/or caring professionals—can help cushion the stress effects. Other protective factors include:

• Healthy coping strategies (such as, mindfulness, movement, or journaling)
• A belief in personal strength or purpose
• Access to mental health care
• A safe living environment

Even if someone has a genetic or early-life predisposition, these positive influences can help reduce the risk or severity of PTSD.

The Interplay Between Psychological Trauma and Neurobiology: When Trauma Rewires the Brain

Trauma doesn’t just live in our memories. It can leave a lasting imprint on how the brain works. Psychological trauma, especially when it’s intense or prolonged, can literally reshape brain circuitry, changing:

• How we respond to the world
• Process emotions
• And even regulate our physical health. 

These changes are not signs of weakness—they’re the brain’s attempt to adapt and protect. However, over time, those changes can contribute to the distress and symptoms associated with PTSD.

How Traumatic Experiences Reshape Brain Function

When someone goes through a traumatic event, the brain doesn’t just remember the experience; it remembers how it felt. That emotional imprint can affect the way neural pathways fire and connect. After trauma, the brain becomes more reactive to perceived threats and less able to calm itself down.

This rewiring happens because trauma increases neural activity in certain brain regions (like those responsible for fear or vigilance). It also decreases activity in others (like those tied to rational thinking or emotional control). 

Over time, this altered circuitry can affect how we think, feel, and behave—even in safe environments. For example, a person may logically know they’re no longer in danger, but their brain and body continue to react as if they are.

This isn’t a flaw. Rather, it’s a form of survival. However, that doesn’t make it any less exhausting, confusing, and difficult to live with until healing begins.

The Lasting Effects of Trauma on the Brain and Body

Long after the traumatic event is over, its biological ripple effects can continue. Chronic stress from trauma can lead to dysregulation in the brain’s communication systems. Some long-term effects may include:

• Impaired memory consolidation, making it harder to organize or process memories
• Changes in pain perception, which can lead to increased sensitivity or physical discomfort
• Disrupted sleep cycles, negatively impacting mental clarity and emotional regulation
• Increased inflammation, which can decrease immune function and overall health

These lingering effects show that trauma can shift the brain from a state of balance into one of ongoing reactivity. Over time, without support or intervention, this can affect not only emotional well-being but physical health as well.

When Physical and Psychological Trauma Collide: The Role of TBI

In some cases, trauma isn’t just psychological; it’s also physical. Traumatic brain injury (aka TBI) can result from a blow to the head, falls, car accidents, or combat-related explosions. And it’s strongly linked with PTSD. The two conditions can interact in complex ways.

TBI can damage parts of the brain involved in mood, memory, and self-regulation. Indeed, the very same areas are affected by psychological trauma. When someone has both TBI and PTSD, the effects can overlap or intensify. 

For example, someone with memory issues from TBI may also struggle with emotional flashbacks, making the confusion and distress that much worse. Rest assured, this doesn’t mean recovery is out of reach. It just means that healing may require a more nuanced approach. 

Fortunately, integrated treatments are being developed that address physical brain injury along with emotional trauma for those navigating both.

New Paths to Healing: Emerging Treatments and Therapies for PTSD

As our understanding of the science behind PTSD grows, so do the tools we have to treat it. Traditional therapies, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and medication, remain effective for only about half of patients. So, there’s great interest in developing more effective approaches. 

Fortunately, exciting new treatment options are emerging that offer hope for individuals who haven’t found relief through conventional methods. These innovations are grounded in neuroscience and tailored to target the brain’s trauma-related changes directly. 

Here are some of the most promising therapies on the horizon:

Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy: A New Frontier

One of the most talked-about breakthroughs in recent years is psychedelic-assisted therapy, particularly with compounds like MDMA (commonly known as ecstasy) and psilocybin (found in “magic mushrooms”). These treatments aren’t about “getting high.” Rather, in carefully controlled therapeutic settings, they appear to help the mind open up and process trauma in new ways.

MDMA appears to reduce fear responses and increase feelings of safety and trust. In turn, this may help people revisit traumatic memories without feeling as overwhelmed. Indeed, MDMA-assisted therapy has shown remarkable results in clinical trials. For example, one intriguing Phase 3 study found over two-thirds of participants no longer met the criteria for PTSD just weeks after treatment. 

As of yet, these therapies are not widely available. But the limited investigations so far have provided encouraging early results, prompting a major shift in the science behind PTSD and how we think about trauma and healing.

Other Innovative and Promising Treatments

Beyond psychedelics, other emerging therapies are making headlines:

• Neurofeedback: This technique trains individuals to change their brainwave patterns in real-time, helping calm overactive threat responses and restore emotional regulation.
• Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy: Used especially with veterans, VR allows individuals to safely re-experience and process trauma-related cues in a controlled setting, helping to desensitize the brain’s fear response.
• Ketamine Therapy: Known for its rapid-acting antidepressant effects, ketamine is also being explored for PTSD—particularly for people who haven’t responded to other treatments.
• Stellate Ganglion Block (SGB): A relatively new approach involving an injection near a cluster of nerves in the neck. Early research suggests it may help “reset” the fight-or-flight response and reduce symptoms of hyperarousal.

The Future of PTSD Research and Treatment

The future of PTSD treatment is deeply tied to personalized care—matching therapies to each person’s unique brain, history, and biology. Researchers are exploring:

• Genetic and biomarker testing to predict which treatments may work best for whom
• Digital therapeutics (such as apps, wearables, and AI-guided therapy) to increase accessibility and provide real-time support
• Noninvasive brain stimulation, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), to improve mood and cognitive control

Most importantly, there’s a growing shift toward trauma-informed care—an approach that emphasizes safety, empathy, and empowerment in every aspect of treatment.

Gender-Specific Considerations in PTSD: Why Care Should Be Sensitive and Specific

PTSD doesn’t discriminate. It can affect anyone, regardless of gender. But, research shows that symptoms, how they show up, and how they’re experienced and treated can vary between men, women, and individuals of other gender identities. Recognizing these differences is essential to providing effective, respectful care that meets each person where they are.

How PTSD Symptoms Can Differ by Gender

Studies consistently show that women are more than twice to three times as likely as men to develop PTSD after a traumatic event (10 to 12% in women vs. 5 to 6% in men). However, that doesn’t mean women are more emotionally vulnerable. Instead, it points to differences in the types of trauma experienced, biological factors, and social conditioning.

• Women with PTSD are more likely to experience symptoms like anxiety, avoidance, depression, emotional numbing, and dissociation. Their trauma is often interpersonal—such as sexual assault, domestic violence, or childhood abuse—and frequently occurs at a younger age. In addition, during stressful situations, they may use a “tend and befriend” response rather than the typically assumed “fight or flight” response. 
• Men are more likely to show externalizing symptoms such as anger, irritability, substance misuse, or risky behavior. Their trauma may be more likely to involve combat, physical assault, or accidents.

These differences can influence how symptoms are recognized, as well as whether someone seeks treatment. For example, men may be less likely to seek help due to the stigma around emotional vulnerability. Women, on the other hand, may be misdiagnosed due to overlapping symptoms with depression or anxiety. More research is clearly needed.

Biological and Societal Factors That Shape the Experience

Biology, of course, also plays a role. Hormonal differences, especially involving estrogen and cortisol, may impact how trauma is processed. Women also tend to have more reactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress-response systems and differences in amygdala and hippocampus activation during emotional events.

Societal influences are equally important. Cultural norms around gender can affect not only the kinds of trauma people are more likely to experience. They also affect how people are supported—or not—afterward. Shame, stigma, and lack of access to trauma-informed care can all affect outcomes.

For individuals outside the male/female binary, such as transgender, nonbinary, or intersex individuals, trauma rates are often even higher, especially due to discrimination, rejection, or violence. Unfortunately, these individuals may also face significant barriers to affirming care.

Gender-Sensitive PTSD Treatment Recommendations

A one-size-fits-all approach to PTSD simply doesn’t work. That’s why trauma care must become more gender-responsive and inclusive. Here are a few recommendations from mental health experts and clinicians:

• Screen for trauma types that are more common by gender (e.g., sexual trauma, combat, identity-based violence)
• Create safe, inclusive environments where individuals feel seen and respected
• Tailor therapy modalities—such as including body-based trauma therapy, EMDR, or group therapy with others who share similar experiences
• Train clinicians in gender-informed and trauma-sensitive care, including cultural humility and LGBTQ+-affirming practices

Remember, gender-sensitive care is about offering compassion and safety to every person as well as tailoring treatments. 

The Future of PTSD Research: Challenges and Opportunities

As the understanding of the science behind PTSD grows, so does the need for continued, compassionate exploration into what causes it, the impacts it has on individuals and society, and the best treatment approaches. Yet while the future of PTSD research holds immense promise, it also presents challenges. 

 

Challenges and Opportunities in PTSD Research

One of the biggest challenges researchers face is the complexity of PTSD itself. It doesn’t look the same from person to person. It’s shaped by the type of trauma, biology, history, and culture. That means there’s no one-size-fits-all model—or treatment.

Yet this complexity also presents an opportunity. For instance, researchers are moving toward personalized, precision-based approaches, which combine:

• Genetic data
• Imaging
• And personal history to develop individualized treatment strategies.

 

Additional challenges include:

• Stigma and underreporting, especially in certain populations (like men, veterans, or marginalized groups)
• Limited diversity in research samples, which can skew results and limit applicability
• The long-term nature of PTSD, which makes it difficult to track progress over time without sustained support and funding

 

Still, the field is evolving rapidly—with exciting breakthroughs on the horizon.

Current Gaps and Unanswered Questions

Despite major strides, there’s still much we don’t know about PTSD. Key questions include:

• Why do some people develop PTSD after trauma while others do not?
• What biological markers can predict treatment success or resistance?
• How can we better support recovery in people with complex PTSD or co-occurring conditions like depression, anxiety, or substance use?
• What are the best ways to adapt care for children, adolescents, and aging populations?

 

More inclusive, long-term studies are needed to close these gaps and ensure care is accessible and effective for all.

The Role of Technology and Big Data

Technology is revolutionizing PTSD research and care. Brain imaging, genetic testing, and wearable tech are providing real-time insights into how trauma affects the body and mind. Artificial intelligence and big data tools can help identify patterns, predict risk, and tailor treatment more precisely than ever before.

For example:

• AI models may help flag early signs of PTSD in medical or military records
• Mobile apps can support daily symptom tracking and self-guided therapy
• Virtual reality is expanding possibilities for safe exposure therapy and emotional processing

 

But with these innovations comes responsibility. When dealing with sensitive health and trauma data, protecting privacy is critical. Technology must be used ethically and transparently, with clear safeguards to prevent harm—such as the misuse of trauma-related data by employers, insurers, or law enforcement. Researchers and developers must remain vigilant to ensure that science advances healing, not harm.

Interdisciplinary Approaches: A Holistic View

To fully understand PTSD, we need to look beyond neuroscience and psychology. The most promising path forward is interdisciplinary collaboration—where experts from multiple fields come together to study trauma from every angle, including:

• Neuroscience and genetics to help understand the biology
• Psychology and psychiatry to assess symptoms and provide effective treatments
• Social work and public health, allowing for trauma-informed systems
• Education, policy, and community organizations to help prevent trauma and advocate for those affected
• Ethics, philosophy, and cultural studies to address the moral and human dimensions of trauma in society

 

This broader approach acknowledges that PTSD isn’t just a condition of the brain—it’s a deeply human experience. One that touches relationships, communities, and culture.

Supporting Individuals with PTSD: Compassion, Care, and Connection

If someone you care about is living with PTSD, it’s only natural to feel unsure of how to help—at least somewhat. Perhaps you’re worried you’ll say or do the wrong thing. However, the simple act of showing up with empathy, patience, and a willingness to listen can be incredibly powerful. 

Remember, no one heals alone. And for folks experiencing PTSD symptoms, community and connection are essential parts of recovery.

How Loved Ones Can Offer Meaningful Support

You don’t need to be a therapist to make a difference. Here are some simple, evidence-based ways to support a loved one living with PTSD:

• Believe them. Validating their experience without judgment or minimizing helps build safety and trust.
• Be patient. Recovery isn’t linear. Some days will be harder than others, and healing can take time.
• Avoid pushing. It’s okay to ask if they want to talk, but don’t pressure them to open up before they’re ready.
• Educate yourself. Learning about PTSD helps you better understand their behavior and needs. This also shows you care.
• Encourage professional help. Offer to help research therapists or go with them to appointments if they’re comfortable.
• Practice self-care. Supporting someone through trauma can be emotionally taxing. Make sure to tend to your own well-being as well.

 

Small acts of compassion—like offering to go on a calming walk together, creating a peaceful environment, or simply being a consistent presence—can go a long way.

Resources for Individuals Living with PTSD

Healing is possible, and many people with PTSD find relief and strength through a mix of therapy, lifestyle changes, and community. Some valuable resources include:

• National Center for PTSD (www.ptsd.va.gov): Offers educational content, self-help tools, and a free PTSD Coach app.
• SAMHSA’s National Helpline at 1-800-662-HELP (4357): Offers free, confidential treatment referrals and support 24/7.
• Psychology Today’s Therapist Finder (www.psychologytoday.com): A helpful way to find trauma-informed therapists in your area. Many insurance companies also provide lists to help ensure the chosen therapist is in your network.
• Support groups: Look for in-person or online groups through NAMI (National Alliance on Mental Illness), Mental Health America, or peer-led communities like PTSD UK or Reddit’s PTSD forum.
• Crisis Text Line: Text HOME to 741741 for free, confidential support from trained crisis counselors.

 

For veterans, first responders, or survivors of specific types of trauma, specialized groups may offer more tailored support.

Why Community and Professional Help Matter

While PTSD can feel isolating, it doesn’t have to be. The path to healing is often strengthened by belonging and understanding—whether through supportive relationships, trauma-informed therapy, peer groups, or faith and cultural communities.

Professional support provides the tools to process trauma safely, while community offers connection, purpose, and hope to create a foundation for long-term recovery.

Conclusion: The Path Forward in PTSD Understanding and Treatment

PTSD is more than some mental health label. It’s a deeply biological, emotional, and social response to experiences that overwhelm and make it difficult to cope. As we’ve explored, PTSD reshapes how the brain functions, disrupts key hormonal and neurochemical systems, and affects people differently based on genetics, early life experiences, and even gender.

The good news is that the science behind PTSD is advancing quickly. From groundbreaking therapies like MDMA-assisted psychotherapy to innovative brain-based treatments to more personalized care. What’s more, new options are continuing to emerge that offer real hope. Researchers, clinicians, and advocates are working together to better understand how trauma affects the brain. Most importantly, they’re working to help people heal.

Of course, it is true that challenges remain. Continued investment in research, more inclusive studies reflecting diverse experiences, and an ongoing commitment to protect the privacy and dignity of those living with trauma are all essential.

Most of all, though, it’s vital to improve connections. Building trauma-informed communities, offering support without judgment, and reminding each other that healing is always possible is powerful when it comes to healing. 

If you’re struggling, please reach out. There are professionals, communities, and resources ready to walk with you on your path toward healing. PTSD may change the brain—but with time, care, and support, recovery can help restore a sense of safety and strength.